Argument

If reading requires you to listen and take in information, constructing an argument in writing means taking action. As opposed to ‘arguing’ in the everyday sense, ‘arguing’ in anthropology is not about asserting your personal opinion. And, unlike in law, you are rarely assigned a side (i.e.. defence vs prosecution) that you are required to support. Instead, ‘arguing’ is about adding depth to an ongoing conversation, questioning the way things are assumed to be, and proposing interesting alternatives supported by ethnographic evidence.

As Martinich writes in Philosophical Writing, ‘The beginning of [an essay]... introduces the argument; the middle elaborates it; the end summarises it. But what is an argument?’[1] An argument is an exploration of a series of propositions (claims) and their premises (evidence) leading to a conclusion (a summary of which proposition is most convincing or of what value different propositions have).

‘Effective persuasive writers do more than make well-supported claims (“I say”); they also map those claims relative to the claims of others (“they say”)’[2]. This ‘They say/I say’ template is the foundation for all the ‘moves anthropologists make’[3].

[1] Martinich, A. 2009. Philosophical Writing. Newark: Wiley.

[2] Graff, G. & C. Birkenstein 2005. "They Say / I Say": The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing. W. W. Norton & Company.

[3] Lahiri, S., L. Mahmud & J. Herron 2010. A Student’s Guide to Reading and Writing in Social Anthropology. Harvard College (available online, accessed 9 August 2021).

Here are a few classic ‘moves’ that anthropologists make when developing their arguments:

Entering a conversation:

The section of the essay where the author introduces the context and motivations of their writing. This will often involve introducing and defining certain key terms, point to ongoing debates or theoretical traditions, and ‘calling out’ other anthropologists. This is usually included in the introduction.

Borrowing and extending:

A brief explanation of someone else’s ideas or work to introduce concepts that the author will then elaborate on, modify, or apply more widely. This strategy is often used in the introduction or in the analysis of ethnographic data.

Establishing authority:

Often done by highlighting the unique insights offered by their particular fieldsite and their expertise as embedded participant-researcher. Anthropologists also establish credibility by backing up their claims with the findings of other researchers or theorists and by admitting the limits of their knowledge. Self-reflexivity is key!

Countering:

A strategy to deepen the reader’s understanding of a topic by pointing out weaknesses in how it has previously been discussed (e.g., gaps, assumptions, generalisations). This does not mean invalidating or discrediting previous works! Countering is a constructive, not destructive, practice. Often this takes the form of ‘making the familiar strange and the strange familiar.’

Stepping back:

A way of drawing together the threads of an argument to make a general statement about the essay’s contributions. These statements often begin with ‘In sum...’ or ‘In this paper, I have argued...’. Often the author will also acknowledge the scope and limits of their contributions (e.g. ‘I am not suggesting...’).

It can be very intimidating to think of an ‘original’ or ‘creative’ argument (for everyone but especially as an undergraduate). Remember that you are dealing with major questions in social theory, over which there is unending controversy; it is therefore asking too much of yourself to come up with an entirely original and convincing ‘answer’ each time you write an essay.

It is important to wrestle seriously with large problems; it is also important, however, to recognise that stating the problem in an interesting and insightful way can be much more valuable than arriving at a forced solution. Often, this involves juxtaposing sources to reveal something about the subject at hand. If you are ‘stuck’ on an essay, try explaining what is difficult about the question verbally to someone else, then note down the steps of your explanation.

In anthropology to ‘argue’ is to persuade through careful and thorough explanation. Take it from veteran debater, Dr. Nick Long! Watch the YouTube video of him giving an anthropology 'taster' lecture for sixth form students at Wyke Sixth Form College in Hull: https://youtu.be/RuegJV_AeYA. Nick makes an ‘argument’ in response to the question, ‘is the elusive category we refer to as “achievement” really our ticket to prosperity and well-being?’. As you listen, think about the ‘moves’ he makes.

Nick argues effectively by:

(1) Hooking the audience by making the presentation relevant and accessible to them. 

(2) Laying out the structure of his presentation according to the questions he hopes to answer. He presents a clear 'puzzle' that the rest of the talk seeks to illuminate. This helps brings focus to what could otherwise be a huge topic. 

(3) Considering multiple approaches (here, to mental health and achievement) in turn and pointing out the specific ways an anthropological approach could enhance understanding. 

(4) He shows that flair and presentation are important in drawing the attention of an audience BUT that these rely on the clarity of the underlying argument. Don’t get too caught up in the metaphors and references! Your assignments are steps in the process of finding your own argumentative voice.

(5) Using a common structure of argument in anthropology. He brings attention to a common assumption (that mental illness is universal) and shows how anthropological evidence complicates it (by showing variations in depression cross-culturally and tracing how ‘depression’ emerged from social and economic processes). 

See a mind map of Nick’s argument here.

Apply the formula of argument above to the following questions: 

‘Success in school is entirely merit-based.’ Discuss.

‘It is no longer necessary to learn any language other than English.’ Discuss.

‘Young people today are becoming increasingly insulated from the world around them.’ Discuss. 

These are topics you might discuss with friends or around the dinner table, and (not coincidentally) questions which anthropologists have addressed in academic literature. If you prefer, you can come up with your own.

• A Student’s Guide to Reading and Writing in Social Anthropology, Harvard College: A practical guide to writing anthropologically. While some advice is specific to Harvard’s course structure, most of the tips for comprehension and analysis (including ‘Moves Anthropologists Make’) can be applied across anthropology programs.
• "They Say / I Say": The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing (available via LSE Library) by Gerald Graff, Cathy Birkenstein, Russel Durst: General (not anthropology-specific), highly accessible advice on how to construct an argument in writing. The book includes many useful templates to practice these skills.
• Conceptual Outline Template, created by Georgia Hartman: A good template to use for outlining your arguments, as a practice exercise or to lay out an essay.  
• Writing Arguments, Colorado State University: A comprehensive break-down of all the different parts of an effective argument (not specific to anthropology).